Comment Culture Begins with Records on Stone

From Inscribed Stones to Digital Streams: The Unstoppable Voice of Koreans.

• You can grasp how Korea’s communication methods have evolved from ancient times to the present.
• Understand how power, media, and public voices have interacted throughout history.
• Reflect on what is needed today for a healthy digital public sphere.

Hello! Today, we embark on a fascinating journey through time to trace the origins of Korea’s comment culture.

From records carved in stone to the internet comments familiar to us today, let’s follow the long history of how Koreans have communicated, resisted, and shaped public opinion.

Table 1: Evolution of Media and Comments in Korean History

1. Dawn of Voices: Records from Ancient and Medieval Times

1.1 The State’s Neural Network, Wooden Slips (Mokgan)

Before paper became common, ancient Korea used ‘mokgan’, wooden slips inscribed with writing, as a core technology for state administration.

These were not public media like newspapers but served as the state’s internal ’neural network.’ Mokgan contained information on tax collection, military supplies management, and more—essentially the state’s secret ledger.

Hundreds of mokgan have been found at Silla and Baekje archaeological sites, showing that even before widespread paper use, a sophisticated bureaucracy relied on written records.

1.2 Permanent Public Memory, Stone Inscriptions (Seokbi)

Unlike the temporary administrative records on mokgan, stone inscriptions, or ‘seokbi,’ were the first mass media intended to permanently inform the public.

Monuments and tombstones proclaimed royal authority, commemorated important events, and established social norms. The stone itself symbolized ’eternity’ and ‘power.’

Though these inscriptions were one-way communication, people’s acts of respect and reverence toward the stones constituted a form of public ‘comment.’

2. Writing of Resistance: Joseon’s Public Sphere and Comment Culture

2.1 Birth of the Public Enlightened by Official Gazettes, Jobo

‘Jobo’ was the official gazette of the Joseon court, mainly hand-copied and distributed to officials and scholars, conveying royal orders and personnel announcements.

In 1577, a significant event occurred: private entrepreneurs attempted to print and sell Jobo using wooden movable type—the first commercial attempt to turn state information into a product in Korean history.

King Seonjo harshly punished them, revealing the fear of losing information monopoly. This incident foreshadowed future struggles for press freedom.

2.2 Channels of Resistance: From Petitions to Anonymous Wall Writings

In Joseon, ‘comments’ directed at the state took official and unofficial forms.

• Petitions (Sangso): Officials and scholars legally criticized policies by submitting petitions to the king, though it was risky and could cost lives. The ‘Maninso’, a petition signed by many scholars, was akin to a collective signature campaign.
• Wall Writings (Byeokseo/Gwaeseo): The powerless and dissenters used anonymous wall writings, often in Hangul, to criticize officials, spread rumors, and sway public sentiment. The state viewed these as serious threats, punishing perpetrators with death.

2.3 Calls to Action and Collective Mobilization, Sabal Tongmun

‘Sabal Tongmun’ was a clever communication tool to mobilize the masses, notably used during the Donghak Peasant Revolution.

A rice bowl was inverted on paper, and participant names were written around the circle, hiding the ringleader’s identity. This way, all shared responsibility and avoided government crackdown.

3. Modern Press and the Voice of the Nation

3.1 Birth of Modern Newspapers and the Hangul Revolution

With modernization came a revolution in communication. The official gazette in classical Chinese, 『Hansung Junbo』 (1883), gave way to the private newspaper 『Dongnip Sinmun』 (1896) published in Hangul.

『Dongnip Sinmun』’s greatest significance was using simple Hangul and spacing, making information accessible to commoners and women for the first time.

Its reader submission section was Korea’s first interactive journalism. This history impressed me deeply, revealing that media democratization depends not only on technology but also on language.

3.2 Silenced Press: Colonial and Authoritarian Rule

However, press freedom was short-lived. In 1907, Japan enacted the Newspaper Act to censor and control Korean media.

This repression continued under post-liberation military dictatorships. The 1980s Chun Doo-hwan regime’s notorious ‘Press Guidelines’ involved daily calls to newspapers dictating what to publish, what to omit, and even headline size and placement.

4. Digital Agora: The Age of Comments

4.1 From Closed Networks to Public Squares

In the 1990s, PC communication services like ‘Hitel’ and ‘Nownuri’ opened the era of online communication.

Initially closed communities of acquaintances, the rise of portal sites changed everything. The 2004 launch of ‘Daum Agora’ created a massive digital public square. Portals like Naver and Daum made comments the primary way for the public to engage with news.

4.2 The Power and Shadows of Online Public Opinion

Online comments have both constructive and destructive sides.

• Constructive: Comments correct misinformation, experts provide deeper insights, and people share experiences. Sometimes comment sections become richer than the original articles, a phenomenon called ‘comment journalism.’
• Destructive: Malicious comments, or ‘mal-comments,’ cause serious social problems—cyberbullying, misinformation, and deep wounds to public figures. The tragic deaths of stars like Choi Jin-sil, Sulli, and Goo Hara revealed the deadly impact of online abuse, leading portals to close comment sections on entertainment news.

• Case 1: Hwang Woo-suk Scandal (2005): Netizens fiercely defended Dr. Hwang through forums and comments, labeling skeptical media as ’traitors.’ Online opinion helped build and later dismantle the ‘Hwang Woo-suk myth’ when the truth emerged.
• Case 2: Candlelight Protests (2008 & 2016): The 2008 protests against US beef imports and the 2016 anti-corruption protests showed how online platforms organize massive street demonstrations, linking digital and physical public spheres.

5. Control of Comments and Public Opinion: Challenges in the Digital Era

5.1 The Battle over Anonymity: Internet Real-Name System

As online comment problems grew, the government introduced the ‘Internet Real-Name System’ to increase accountability and reduce mal-comments.

However, strong opposition argued it suppressed freedom of expression. In 2012, the Constitutional Court ruled the system unconstitutional, affirming that “anonymous expression is essential in a democratic society.”

5.2 Organized Comments: The Druking Incident and Opinion Manipulation

The ‘Druking comment manipulation scandal’ shocked the nation, revealing how easily digital public discourse can be manipulated.

A small organized group used automated programs (macros) to manipulate ’like/dislike’ counts on Naver news comments, distorting public opinion on political issues. This raised fundamental questions about the authenticity of online public opinion.

5.3 Ever-Changing Rules: Portal Comment Policies

Portals continue to revise comment policies amid social pressures. Each major event prompts new rules, showing the difficult balancing act portals face between user participation, social responsibility, and political pressure.

Comparison: Evolution of Portal News Comment Policies

Table 2: Timeline of Portal News Comment Policy Changes (Naver vs. Daum/Kakao)

Conclusion

From this long history, we find several key insights:

• First, the desire to express remains constant. From Joseon wall writings to today’s comments, Koreans have persistently voiced participation in public discourse and held power accountable.
• Second, technology changes but the tension between freedom and responsibility continues. Media forms evolve, but the challenge to protect critical voices while safeguarding the vulnerable remains.
• Third, new eras require new skills. In an age where algorithms influence opinion, we must develop ‘digital literacy’—the ability to critically read and write digital information.

Reflecting on this long and intense history of communication, what are your thoughts on today’s comment culture?