Comprehensive Overview of the Battle of Zhuolu: The Unending War of Myth and History

One event, thousands of years of stories. How has the confrontation between the Yellow Emperor and Chi You been reborn in modern politics and culture?

Overview

• The official narrative of the Battle of Zhuolu recorded in orthodox Chinese historical texts
• Alternative interpretations from Korean non-mainstream historians and their controversies
• Reasons for the revival of the Battle of Zhuolu in contemporary politics and culture

The Intersection of Myth and History: The Battle of Zhuolu

The Battle of Zhuolu (涿鹿之戰), said to have taken place in the dawn of ancient East Asia, is more than a mere military clash; it is a complex narrative where the origins of Chinese civilization and various ethnic identity discourses intersect. This distant past event was established as a unifying narrative of Chinese civilization through Sima Qian’s “Records of the Grand Historian (史記)”, framing the Yellow Emperor (黃帝) as the progenitor of civilization and Chi You (蚩尤) as a brutal rebel.

However, behind this story lies mythological interpretations such as those in the “Classic of Mountains and Seas (山海經)” and alternative views from Korean non-mainstream historians who regard Chi You as a hero of the Korean people. In modern times, the battle has been revived as a new ’narrative war’ through China’s “Three Ancestors of Chinese Civilization (中華三祖)” project and Korea’s “Red Devils” symbol. This article explores the multiple layers of the Battle of Zhuolu and traces how this ancient story shapes present identities.

Part 1: The Battle of Zhuolu in the Chinese Orthodox Narrative

We examine the classical Chinese-centered narrative that has dominated interpretations of the Battle of Zhuolu for over two thousand years. We uncover how complex tribal conflicts were established as a myth of state origin.

The Triadic Power Structure Before the Conflict: Yellow Emperor, Flame Emperor, Chi You

The narrative revolves around three figures: the Yellow Emperor (黃帝), Flame Emperor (炎帝), and Chi You (蚩尤). Their relationships were far more complex and fluid than the later ‘hero versus villain’ dichotomy.

• Yellow Emperor (黃帝), the rising unifying ruler A civilization hero who ended chaos and established order. Considered the ancestor of the Huaxia people (華夏族), he is deified as the founder of civilization who invented writing, calendars, and chariots.

  

• Flame Emperor (炎帝), the fading tribal chief Identified with Shennong (神農), the god of agriculture and medicine. His era declined, creating a power vacuum that allowed the Yellow Emperor to rise. After defeat at the Battle of Banquan (阪泉之戰), he is said to have allied with the Yellow Emperor.

  

• Chi You (蚩尤), the powerful outsider Leader of the Jiuli (九黎) tribe, associated with the Dongyi (東夷) group. A master metallurgist who crafted the first metal weapons, depicted as a fearsome warrior with “bronze head and iron forehead (銅頭鐵額)”.

  

As history was rewritten centering on the Huaxia people, the Flame Emperor was incorporated into the bloodline, while the most alien figure, Chi You, was defined as a rebel to be eliminated.

Establishing the Orthodox Narrative: Sima Qian’s “Records of the Grand Historian”

Sima Qian, in the “Annals of the Five Emperors (五帝本紀)”, defined the Battle of Zhuolu as the decisive moment of Chinese unification. His narrative clearly contrasts the Yellow Emperor as the “one who governs chaos (治亂者)” and Chi You as the “one who causes chaos (作亂者)”.

The “Records” present a logical sequence where the Yellow Emperor first subdues the Flame Emperor at Banquan to unify internally, then defeats the external threat Chi You at Zhuolu, and is crowned the Son of Heaven (天子). This transformed tribal conquest wars into acts of legitimate order establishment, becoming a historical precedent justifying the expansion of subsequent Chinese dynasties.

Mythical Struggle: The War of Gods and Monsters in the “Classic of Mountains and Seas”

While the “Records” build a political narrative, the “Classic of Mountains and Seas (山海經)” portrays the Battle of Zhuolu as a cosmic struggle between gods, monsters, and supernatural forces.

• Chi You’s forces (chaotic natural forces): summon the wind god Fengbo (風伯) and rain god Yushi (雨師) to unleash storms and thick fog.
• Yellow Emperor’s forces (order and civilization): summon the winged dragon Yinglong (應龍) and drought goddess Ba (魃), invent the “south-pointing chariot (指南車)” to overcome the fog.

This confrontation symbolizes civilization (Yellow Emperor) triumphing over unpredictable nature (Chi You). Yet, the story that the goddess Ba remained on earth causing drought as a cost of victory adds depth, implying inevitable sacrifice and tragedy in establishing order.

Part 2: Alternative Interpretations Surrounding the Battle of Zhuolu

We explore counter-narratives challenging the China-centered story, illustrating that history is a multi-layered field of interpretation rather than a single truth.

Chi You, the Eastern Hero: The Korean Non-Mainstream Historical Perspective

Korean non-mainstream historians (재야사학), outside the academic mainstream, reframe Chi You as a heroic progenitor of the Korean people. Central to this view is the “Hwandan Gogi (桓檀古記)”.

In this narrative, Chi You appears as the 14th Hwanung of the Bae Dal Kingdom (倍達國), named ‘Jaoji Hwanung (慈烏支桓雄)’, while the Yellow Emperor is portrayed as a rebellious vassal opposing his rule. Thus, the Battle of Zhuolu is completely reversed as the “Great Victory of Zhuolu (涿鹿大捷)” where Chi You suppresses the rebellion.

Mainstream historians consider the “Hwandan Gogi” a forgery, but this narrative holds significant cultural and ideological meaning as a ‘counter-history’ resisting Sinocentrism and constructing an independent origin.

The Core of the Debate: Who Are the Dongyi (東夷)?

At the heart of the logic linking Chi You to the Korean ancestors lies the interpretation of “Dongyi (Eastern Barbarians)”.

• Non-mainstream historians’ claim: They view Chi You’s Jiuli tribe as part of the Dongyi, who are direct ancestors of the Korean people. They connect this to the advanced Longshan (龍山) culture of the Shandong Peninsula and argue it aligns with records of Chi You’s use of metal weapons.
• Mainstream academic criticism: ‘Dongyi’ was a broad exonym used by ancient China for various heterogeneous eastern groups, making it difficult to equate directly with the modern Korean ethnicity. The formula ‘Chi You = Dongyi = Korean people’ is seen as an anachronistic projection of modern nationalism onto antiquity.

Radical Hypothesis: The Battle of Zhuolu as a ‘Salt Production’ Myth?

Beyond questioning whether the battle actually occurred, some non-historical interpretations focus on “what this story means.” The most intriguing hypothesis claims that the Battle of Zhuolu mythologically personifies ancient salt production processes.

This hypothesis intricately links key elements of the battle to salt production:

• Name similarities: Zhuolu (涿鹿) sounds like ’turbid brine (濁鹵, Zhuólǔ)’, and Chi You (蚩尤) resembles ‘salt from a pond (池鹽, Chíyán)’.
• Process correspondences:
  • The Sun (Yellow Emperor) evaporates the saltwater (Chi You), representing the core of the battle.
  • The rain and fog that hinder salt production correspond to Chi You’s allies (Yushi and Fengbo).
  • The drought essential for salt production corresponds to the Yellow Emperor’s ally, the goddess Ba.

This interpretation compellingly explains the mythic elements of the Battle of Zhuolu, offering a fresh perspective beyond historical debates.

Part 3: The Revival of the Battle of Zhuolu in Modern Times

How are ancient myths reinterpreted within the political and cultural landscapes of 21st-century China and Korea?

Chi You in China: The “Three Ancestors of Chinese Civilization” Project

In the late 20th century, China dramatically restructured history by elevating Chi You—once an enemy—alongside the Yellow Emperor and Flame Emperor as the “Three Ancestors of Chinese Civilization (中華三祖)”. The “Three Ancestors Hall (中華三祖堂)” in Zhuolu County, Hebei Province, symbolizes this.

The political goals of this project are clear:

1. Multiethnic national integration: By embracing Chi You, ancestor of minorities like the Miao (苗族), it incorporates their histories into mainstream Chinese history to strengthen national unity.
2. Strengthening historical territorial claims: Reinforcing the principle that all history within current Chinese borders is Chinese history, blocking neighboring countries’ claims.

Interestingly, murals in the Three Ancestors Hall depict Chi You wielding a primitive stone axe, while the Yellow and Flame Emperors bear metal weapons. This reveals a dual strategy: embracing Chi You while maintaining Huaxia’s civilizational superiority, subverting traditional historical facts.

Chi You in Korea: Cultural Icon of the “Red Devils”

While China reinterpreted Chi You through state-led projects, in Korea he was revived organically in popular culture. During the 2002 World Cup, Chi You was adopted as the symbol of the football supporters group “Red Devils”, representing a strong and resistant national spirit.

The mascot, featuring the Gwi-myeon-wa (鬼面瓦) image, is interpreted through non-mainstream history as the face of the war god Chi You, forming a powerful connection. This is a bottom-up cultural phenomenon born from popular desire, not a top-down state historical project. On the international stage of the World Cup, Koreans sought a strong symbol breaking away from static images and resisting Sinocentric history, and Chi You perfectly fulfilled this need.

Comparison of Modern Chinese and Korean Interpretations of Chi You

Comparing how the same figure, Chi You, is differently interpreted today reveals clear contrasts. Where do you think these differences originate?

Conclusion

In concluding this article, I am reminded once again that history is not a fixed past but a living resource constantly recreated according to present needs. The legend of the Battle of Zhuolu leaves us with three key points:

1. One event, multiple stories: The Battle of Zhuolu is a layered narrative combining the victor’s record (Chinese official history), the loser’s resistance (Korean non-mainstream history), and mythological imagination (Classic of Mountains and Seas).
2. Historical interpretation reflects the present: China’s “Three Ancestors” project and Korea’s “Red Devils” phenomenon show how the same mythic figure is differently mobilized according to modern political and cultural needs.
3. The unending war of narratives: While the physical battle between the Yellow Emperor and Chi You ended, the ‘war of narratives’ over their meanings and identities continues into the 21st century.

The story of the Battle of Zhuolu poses important questions about how we should view and interpret history.