Fake News in the Joseon Dynasty: The Sword and Tongue That Shook the Dynasty

Responses to False Information in a Confucian State and Their Limits

• Understand the specific terms describing the forms of ‘fake news’ in the Joseon Dynasty.
• Learn about the legal mechanisms (Daemyeongryul, Banjawul) and investigative agencies (Uigeumbu) used to control false information.
• Examine historical cases showing how false information was distorted into a weapon for political purges.

The Many Faces of Fake News in the Joseon Dynasty

The phenomenon commonly called ‘fake news’ today also existed in the Joseon era. However, it was not a single concept then. Fake news in Joseon was known by various names depending on its form and danger, and understanding these is the first step to reading Joseon society.

• Rumors (유언비어, 流言蜚語): Baseless gossip that unsettled public sentiment. Especially rumors undermining the king’s legitimacy were considered acts threatening the social foundation.
• Anonymous postings (괘서, 掛書 or 벽서, 壁書): Public notices anonymously posted in public places, used as strong political criticism or personal defamation. These often ignited large-scale political purges.
• Evil words and writings (요언, 妖言 and 요서, 妖書): Ominous and strange words or writings that misled public sentiment. Content denying the dynasty’s heavenly mandate was treated as high treason.
• Slander and false accusation (참소, 讒訴 and 무고, 誣告): Acts of defaming others or falsely accusing them. These were key political weapons used to eliminate rivals amid intense factional struggles.

The fundamental reason the Joseon dynasty reacted so sensitively to false information lies in the Confucian ideology of ‘Correct Naming Theory (정명론, 正名論)’. Since social order was believed to be maintained only when names matched reality, false information was seen as disrupting names and realities, thus undermining social hierarchy. Therefore, state control of information had a moral imperative to protect the Confucian hierarchical society.

This article explores how, despite the Joseon dynasty’s sophisticated legal and institutional measures against false information, these mechanisms were distorted into tools for political purges amid fierce factional strife. It shows that the greatest vulnerability of the state was not false information itself but the political context interpreting and deciding the consequences of that information.

Chapter 1: The State’s Sword — Legal Framework for Controlling False Information

State Law: 『Daemyeongryul』 and 『Gyeongguk Daejeon』

Crimes related to information in Joseon were mainly punished based on the Ming dynasty’s criminal law, 『Daemyeongryul』. Particularly, acts that misled public sentiment through evil words and writings (妖言惑衆) were considered serious threats to national security. The ringleaders were executed by beheading or hanging, and the punishment extended to their families through the principle of collective punishment. The Joseon basic legal code, 『Gyeongguk Daejeon』, clearly stipulated the application of these laws.

Principle of Reciprocity: Banjawul (反坐律)

To prevent abuse of false accusations, a unique system called ‘Banjawul’ existed. Under Banjawul, if someone falsely accused another of a crime and it was proven untrue, the accuser would receive the punishment corresponding to that crime. For example, if a person falsely accused someone of treason, the accuser could be punished for treason themselves. This was a powerful institutional measure to curb political slander.

The King’s Investigators: Role and Methods of Uigeumbu

Uigeumbu was the royal judicial agency directly under the king, handling major state crimes such as treason. Due to the political impact of anonymous postings or evil words cases, most investigations were conducted directly by Uigeumbu. The core objective was to uncover the masterminds behind the incidents, and during this process, goshin (拷訊), or legal torture, was routinely used to extract confessions. Since confessions were considered the most decisive evidence, harsh torture was commonly employed.

Types of False Information and Punishments in Joseon

Chapter 2: The Politics of Slander — Cases Where Information Became a Weapon

Despite legal controls, fake news in Joseon was often exploited as a tool for political purges. The ‘political utility’ of information was prioritized over its truthfulness.

Anonymous Wall Postings and Purges: The Yangjae Station Posting Incident (Jeongmi Sahwa, 1547)

The Jeongmi Sahwa is a prime example showing how a single anonymous wall posting could trigger a massive political storm. In 1547, a posting was found at Yangjae Station stating, “A female ruler holds power above, and traitor Lee Gi and others manipulate power below; the country will perish.” ‘Female ruler’ referred to Queen Munjeong, who was regent. The ruling So-yun faction used this as evidence of rebellion by their rivals, the Dae-yun faction, leading to the purge of many Sarim scholars without proof.

Whispers of Rebellion: The Jeong Yeo-rip Rebellion Case (Gichuk Ok-sa, 1589)

The Gichuk Ok-sa shows how devastating false accusations of rebellion could be. When Jeong Yeo-rip, a member of the Dong-in faction, was accused of forming a secret society ‘Daedonggye’ to rebel, Seo-in faction leader Jeong Cheol used this as a pretext for a massive purge. Relying solely on rumors and confessions extracted under torture without clear evidence, over 1,000 Dong-in members were sacrificed over three years, severely weakening Joseon’s national power just before the Japanese invasions.

Deadly Accusations: Na Gyeong-eon’s False Report and Crown Prince Sado’s Tragedy (Imo Hwa-byeon, 1762)

Malicious accusations clouded the judgment of the highest authority, leading to irreversible tragedy. At the peak of conflict between King Yeongjo and Crown Prince Sado, government official Na Gyeong-eon accused the prince of plotting rebellion. Yeongjo’s distrust of his son was already deep, and despite ministers’ calls for careful investigation, he accepted the accusation as truth. This accusation directly triggered Yeongjo’s decision to imprison Sado in a rice chest, leading to his death. Ironically, Na Gyeong-eon was later executed for false accusation, but by then his ‘fake news’ had already condemned the heir to death.

What surprised me most in these cases was that lack of evidence did not prevent purges. On the contrary, absence of evidence allowed imagination to inflate the scale of rebellion. Do you not see moments today where ‘political necessity’ takes precedence over truth?

Chapter 3: The Ecosystem of Information, Belief, and Control

The Double-Edged Sword of the Press: The Role of Daegan

The official press agencies of Joseon, Daegan (Sahyeonbu and Saganwon), played an important role in criticizing the king and officials and shaping public opinion. However, as factional strife intensified, Daegan degenerated into attacking factions by excessive impeachments based on rumors rather than objective criticism. The public forum became the frontline of partisan information warfare.

Reading Heaven’s Will and Controlling Narratives: Astronomical Phenomena as Political News

In Joseon, governed by the theory of Heaven-Man Correspondence (천인감응설), astronomical events like comet appearances were interpreted as heavenly judgments on earthly politics. The 1468 Nam Yi general case shows how this could be exploited. Political rival Yoo Ja-gwang falsely accused Nam Yi of saying the comet signaled “sweeping away the old and welcoming the new,” framing it as a sign of rebellion. This monopoly over natural event interpretation created a rebellion narrative, leading to Nam Yi’s execution.

Technological Bottleneck: State Monopoly and Printing Limitations

Unlike Europe, where printing technology sparked the Reformation, Joseon’s printing technology was tightly controlled by the state. The technical challenge of typesetting thousands of Chinese characters made books a privilege of the elite, and the state limited printing to Confucian classics and regime-supporting texts. These technical limits blocked large-scale spread of ‘fake news’ via print but amplified the impact of orally transmitted rumors and anonymous postings.

Conclusion: Joseon’s Echo in the Digital Age

The Joseon dynasty’s history of responding to false information is a complex interplay of strict laws, extreme politicization, belief systems, and limited media environments. Objective truth was powerless against political survival logic, and accusations often outweighed evidence.

Joseon’s case leaves us three important lessons today:

1. False information is most dangerous when used by those in power to justify actions they already desire.
2. The ultimate defense against false information is not censorship but the independence and integrity of judicial institutions and the press tasked with uncovering truth.
3. Just as Joseon’s state-led ‘official echo chamber’ existed, today’s social media algorithms create ‘personalized echo chambers’ that risk paralyzing critical thinking.

I hope this article encourages critical reflection on the information wars we face today through the lens of Joseon history.