Hong Gil-dong: The Bandit in History and the Hero in Fiction, Two Lives

The Dramatic Encounter Between the Bandit in History and the Hero in Fiction

• Explore the actual deeds of the historical figure Hong Gil-dong.
• Analyze how the novel 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』 became a timeless heroic narrative.
• Understand how one name came to represent two completely different individuals.

Once upon a time in the Joseon kingdom, there was a name: Hong Gil-dong. This name intriguingly holds two very different stories. One is recorded in the very formal and objective historical record 『Annals of the Joseon Dynasty』. There, Hong Gil-dong was the terrifying leader of bandits who threatened national peace.

But another story breathes life in the novel 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』, portraying a hero who fought against an unjust world. Let’s compare these two lives at a glance.

Comparing the Two Hong Gil-dongs in History and Fiction

The historical Hong Gil-dong was active during King Yeonsan’s reign, while the fictional one was born in the virtuous King Sejong’s era. The historical figure’s status is unclear, but the fictional character is clearly described as a ‘seo-eol,’ the illegitimate son of a high official.

The biggest difference lies in their actions and fate. The historical Hong Gil-dong plundered the people and devastated local economies, whereas the fictional Hong Gil-dong formed the Hwalbindang to seize corrupt officials’ wealth and aid the poor, becoming a true righteous thief. His ending was also different: the historical figure was captured by government forces with no further record, while the fictional one established the ideal state of Yuldo Kingdom and lived happily as king.

Part 1. The Footsteps of a Bandit Left in History

Let’s open the history books first and meet the real story of Hong Gil-dong.

A Turbulent Era, the Reign of King Yeonsan

Hong Gil-dong was active during the reign of King Yeonsan. This era was marked by two major purges of intellectuals, the Mu-o and Gapja purges, plunging the entire country into severe chaos. Local government offices lost administrative power, and the people’s lives were full of suffering. This turmoil provided the perfect background for large bandit groups like Hong Gil-dong’s to emerge.

The Arrest That Shook the Nation

In 1500, the 『Diary of King Yeonsan』 records an unusual event. The three highest-ranking officials—the Chief State Councillor, Left State Councillor, and Right State Councillor—personally reported to the king the joyful news of capturing Hong Gil-dong. They said, “There is no greater joy than removing a harmful presence that torments the people.”

It was extraordinary for the top officials to personally report the capture of a single bandit. This shows Hong Gil-dong was not a mere thief but led a massive organization capable of challenging government forces and threatening the state.

Bold Mockery: Impersonating Officials

The Annals also record Hong Gil-dong’s audacious criminal methods. He wore a hat ornament made of jade and a red belt, impersonating a third-rank official called ‘Cheomji (Deputy Magistrate)’. Leading armed followers, he entered government offices during broad daylight as if they were his own home, demonstrating his overwhelming audacity.

This was no mere disguise. He wore the very symbols of the state authority he despised, mocking that authority and showing extreme contempt for Joseon’s rigid social hierarchy.

Corrupt Power’s Dark Collusion

Surprisingly, Hong Gil-dong’s story did not end with simple banditry. During interrogation after his arrest, it was revealed that a high-ranking military officer named Eom Gwi-son was in cahoots with him. Eom was suspected of acting as a ‘wajoo (shelter master),’ selling Hong Gil-dong’s stolen goods and protecting him.

This incident reveals the deep corruption in society at the time. While the bandits provided force, insiders like Eom Gwi-son shielded Hong Gil-dong, leaked information, and aided their activities.

Bringing Suffering to the People

Was Hong Gil-dong a hero to the people? Unfortunately, history says no. Records in the 『Annals of King Jungjong』, 13 years after his capture, show that the Chungcheong Province region where he operated still suffered from the chaos he left behind.

“Since Hong Gil-dong’s banditry, Chungcheong Province has not recovered from the devastation, making it difficult to meet tribute quotas.”

This shows Hong Gil-dong’s banditry ruined not only corrupt officials but also the lives of ordinary people. The people did not receive help from him; they had to flee their homes to escape him.

Part 2. The Hero Born from Heo Gyun’s Pen

Now, let’s enter the story of the genius writer Heo Gyun. He borrowed the name of the real bandit Hong Gil-dong to create a revolutionary hero embodying his ideal world.

Heo Gyun, the Revolutionary Bearing the Era’s Pain

Heo Gyun was an outstanding scholar and writer but also held radical ideas to shake the system. His beliefs were strengthened by witnessing the tragic life of his mentor Son-gok Lee Dal, a genius poet who, as a ‘seo-eol,’ could never hold office and lived a life of frustration. Through his mentor’s pain, Heo Gyun realized the fundamental contradictions of Joseon society and took up his pen to expose them.

He cleverly set the novel’s background not in the chaotic Yeonsan era but in the most idealized period of Joseon, the Sejong era. This was to show that discrimination against ‘seo-eol’ was not due to one tyrant king but a structural flaw of Joseon itself.

“The Pain of Not Being Able to Call One’s Father ‘Father’”

The story of 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』 begins with Hong Gil-dong’s suffering of “not being able to call his father ‘father’ or his elder brother ‘brother’ (呼父呼兄)”. This symbolizes the social discrimination and shackles that ‘seo-eol’ had to endure.

In Joseon, the ‘Seo-eol Imprisonment Law (庶孽禁錮法)’ prohibited children born to concubines from taking civil service exams or holding high office. Many talented individuals were excluded from society despite their abilities. This was the most heartbreaking part for me when reading 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』.

Forming the Hwalbindang and Founding Yuldo Kingdom

In the novel, Hong Gil-dong leaves home after his extraordinary talents are suppressed by his status. There, he becomes the leader of bandits but transforms the group into ‘Hwalbindang (Living Poor Party),’ an organization that helps the poor. Hwalbindang seizes corrupt officials’ wealth and redistributes it to the needy, becoming a true righteous thief.

However, Hong Gil-dong realizes that the world inside Joseon can never change. He crosses the sea with his followers and establishes the ‘Yuldo Kingdom,’ becoming its king. Yuldo Kingdom was not just a fantasy; it was Heo Gyun’s political blueprint for an ideal society where individual worth is determined by ability, not birth or status.

Part 3. Becoming the Archetype of Korean Righteous Thieves

In Joseon, besides Hong Gil-dong, famous bandits like Im Kkeok-jeong and Jang Gil-san were loved by the people. But why did the fictional Hong Gil-dong become the representative righteous thief?

• First, the cause of his struggle. Hong Gil-dong’s fight was not just about poverty. He resisted the unjust social order that oppressed talented individuals, gaining sympathy from a broader social class.
• Second, the completeness of the story. His story was meticulously crafted by Heo Gyun, the era’s top intellectual. It included a clear political vision of Yuldo Kingdom, elevating it beyond a simple rebellion tale to a profound ideological fable.
• Third, the heroic fantasy. Hong Gil-dong’s magical powers made him a superhuman hero, providing immense vicarious satisfaction and fantasy to people weary of harsh realities.

Part 4. Heo Gyun’s Revolutionary Ideas Hidden in the Novel

『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』 was not just entertainment. It was close to a ‘political manifesto’ through which Heo Gyun conveyed his revolutionary ideas to the public.

A Defense of Abandoned Talent, the Theory of Lost Talent (遺才論)

In the essay “Theory of Lost Talent,” Heo Gyun sharply criticized, “Heaven does not discriminate when producing talent, so why does Joseon discard talent based on family background?” The fictional Hong Gil-dong was a literary embodiment of this theory. Despite his extraordinary talent, he was abandoned due to being a seo-eol and ultimately turned against the system that rejected him.

The Power to Overturn the World, the Theory of the Powerful People (豪民論)

In “Theory of the Powerful People,” Heo Gyun divided the people into compliant ‘Hangmin,’ resentful ‘Wonmin,’ and the ‘Homin’ who possess the power to overturn the world when opportunity arises. He said the state’s greatest fear should be the ‘Homin.’ Hong Gil-dong was the perfect embodiment of this ‘Homin.’ He gathered oppressed people, formed an organized force, and strategically challenged state authority.

Ultimately, Heo Gyun was executed for treason due to these subversive ideas, but his thoughts live forever in the immortal story of 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』.

Part 5. Hong Gil-dong’s Story Today

Debates Over Authorship and Creation Period

There is still much scholarly debate about the author and creation period of 『Hong Gil-dong Jeon』. Contemporary figure Lee Sik recorded that Heo Gyun wrote the novel, and the thematic consistency with Heo Gyun’s ideas is considered strong evidence. However, some anachronisms, such as references to 17th-century figure Jang Gil-san, suggest that Heo Gyun wrote the original, and later additions were made by others—a theory widely accepted today.

From Hero to Placeholder Name: Hong Gil-dong as a Sample Name

The story ends with an ironic twist. The name Hong Gil-dong, once a figure who shook the state, is now used as the ’example name’ in South Korean government forms. Hong Gil-dong has become a symbol representing “every citizen,” the most ordinary and common name.

This is the strongest evidence that the historical criminal’s story was completely overshadowed by the heroic narrative created in fiction.

Conclusion

In the end, the name of a bandit who nearly vanished from history was reborn as an immortal hero transcending time, thanks to the power of Heo Gyun and his story. That name still resonates deeply in our society today.

• Historical Hong Gil-dong: A real figure active during King Yeonsan’s reign, leader of a large bandit group who mocked state authority and plundered the people.
• Fictional Hong Gil-dong: A hero created by Heo Gyun who resisted an unjust social order and founded the ideal state of Yuldo Kingdom.
• Victory of the Story: Today, the name Hong Gil-dong is remembered more as the heroic image created by Heo Gyun than the historical fact, becoming a name representing ordinary people.

What does Hong Gil-dong mean to you? I hope this article offers an opportunity to reflect on the journey of Hong Gil-dong between history and literature.