Joseon Dynasty Civil Service Exams: The Scene of Dreams and Frustrations Seen Through 『Hanyangga』

Why Did the Inspector’s Badge Become a Commodity?

• Vivid scenes of the civil service exam hall resembling a battlefield
• The reality of corporate-style cheating centered on ‘Geobyeok’ and ‘Sasu’
• The impact of meritocracy’s collapse on contemporary society

Overture: The Song of Seoul Echoing in an Era of Decline

In 1844 (the 10th year of King Heonjong’s reign), the long lyrical poem 『Hanyangga (Song of Hanyang)』 by Hansan Geosa vividly captures 19th-century Hanyang (Seoul) like a documentary. The work sings of the bustling cityscape before leading us to the most dramatic spectacle and contradiction of the era—the Joseon Dynasty civil service exam.

Rather than glorifying or criticizing the exams, 『Hanyangga』 portrays the chaotic scene as it was. Following its perspective, this article reconstructs the reality of the exams, which had degenerated from a contest of ability into a proxy battle of wealth and power, the extraordinary cheating that arose within, and the desperate struggle of the state to stop it.

Part 1: The Departure Ceremony to the Battlefield, the Road to Exaggeration

The first scene of the exam hall described in 『Hanyangga』 was not a procession of scholars debating learning. Instead, it resembled a military send-off to the battlefield.

“At Jipchunmun, Wolgeunmun, and Tonghwamun, Honghwamun / The troops depart, the robust vanguard soldiers / Wearing cut robes folded back, holding umbrellas with empty stones / Holding stakes, banners, and lanterns made from large roads, / Marking each with different characters, following their lanterns.”

The song begins with the image of the “robust vanguard soldiers” rushing through the palace gates before dawn. These were not examinees but hired seat grabbers who secured the prime spots in the exam hall for money. They carried stakes and lanterns, each lantern marked with characters indicating their affiliated ’team.’

This single passage reveals the essence of late Joseon civil service exams. The first hurdle determining success was not literary skill but physical power to secure a seat visible to the examiners (sigwan). When tens to hundreds of thousands of candidates gathered, examiners customarily selected successful candidates only from the first few hundred answer sheets submitted. Thus, fights for good seats were inevitable.

Part 2: Corporate-Style Cheating Under the Umbrella

Once the seat grabbers had secured their spots through hard struggle, a well-organized ‘main force’ took over. Did you think cheating in the Joseon exams was limited to hiding answers in sleeves? 『Hanyangga』 reveals a system resembling a modern task force team.

“Under the hanging title board at Seolpojang, stakes are driven, umbrellas set up, / Curtains hung, lanterns placed, attendants lined up / Guarding each section strictly, the threats are fierce / Each team opens their book bundles, / Thinking up answers like a storm / The great writers recite every phrase, / The scribes write tirelessly.”

When the exam questions were posted, a ‘cheating base’ was established under large umbrellas and curtains. A perfect division of labor operated here:

• Geobyeok (Great Writers), the brains of composition: Poor yangban scholars with excellent knowledge who were hired to instantly create exemplary answers on the spot. The legendary Geobyeok Yoo Gwang-eok reportedly tailored top-grade or passing answers according to the client’s payment, showing the exam had become a market for buying and selling talent.
• Sasu (Scribes), the hands of writing: Professional copyists who transcribed the Geobyeok’s compositions into elegant calligraphy designed to catch the examiners’ eyes.
• Seat grabbers and attendants, the muscle: Guards who protected the operation from external threats and ensured smooth progress.

These ’teams’ called ‘jeop’ formed a corporate-style criminal organization with a perfect division of labor: seat securing (seat grabbers) → content creation (Geobyeok) → calligraphy (Sasu). When I first encountered this record, I was amazed that a massive ‘fraudulent admission industry’ already existed in late Joseon, far beyond simple cheating.

Part 3: “Inspector’s Badge or Commodity?” The State’s Blunted Sword

The state did not turn a blind eye to this chaos. The law code had strict punishments for cheating.

Proxy testing was the gravest crime, but the law’s blade dulled before the corrupt reality.

Eventually, a popular rhyme spread in the capital: “Inspector’s badge (Eosahwa) or commodity (Geumeunhwa)?” This mocked the official badge of honor from the king as a flower bought with money (gold and silver). This shows that corruption was deeply rooted, with large-scale scandals involving examiners and candidates exchanging answers and silver already exposed during King Sukjong’s reign, before the era of 『Hanyangga』.

As cheating became widespread, the state resorted to the drastic measure of Pabang (cancellation of the entire exam). This punished countless innocent candidates and acknowledged the limits of state control.

Conclusion

The 19th-century Joseon civil service exams depicted in 『Hanyangga』 were the most dramatic stage showing how meritocracy, the pillar of the state, collapsed under factional politics. In a reality where official posts were traded for money and connections, efforts to preserve exam fairness became hollow cries.

• Key Summary

  1. Exam halls turned battlefields: 19th-century civil service exams began not as contests of ability but as physical fights for good seats.
  2. Industrialized cheating: The division of labor among seat grabbers (guards), Geobyeok (content creators), and Sasu (calligraphers) formed a vast cheating industry.
  3. Meritocracy’s collapse: The system’s breakdown led to the frustration of talented individuals and the rise of wealthy incompetents, accelerating Joseon’s decline.

Ultimately, 『Hanyangga』 was both a hymn to a bustling capital and a lament for a decaying dynasty. There, the ‘inspector’s badge’ could no longer bloom; only the ‘commodity flower’ flourished as a symbol of desire.

If you are curious about other social aspects of the Joseon era, see the following article. See also: How Peddlers Led the Market Economy in Late Joseon