Overseas Military Dispatches in the Goryeo and Joseon Periods: Listening to the Voices of History

The sorrow of forced wars, rightful anger, cunning diplomacy, and bitter victories… Facing the turbulent times through the voices of four people.

• Historical context of four major overseas dispatches (Japanese invasions, Tsushima campaigns, Battle of Sarhū, Nasan campaigns)
• Personal anguish and national dilemmas hidden behind the wars
• Lessons that past military decisions offer us today

Voices of History: Records from Battlefields Across the Sea

In the dusty depths of archives, history books written with brushes do not lie dormant alone. Between the lines lie the shouts of nameless soldiers, the anguish of generals, and the decisions of kings. “Mongol-Korean allied invasions of Japan,” “Tsushima campaigns,” “Nasan campaigns”… The dry print in books merely lists events, but when we draw out the vivid stories behind them, history finally speaks to us.

Here are the stories of four people who endured the storms of their times. A young Goryeo soldier swept away by the ambitions of a great empire to a foreign sea; a late Goryeo general who drew his sword to punish pirates ravaging the country; a Joseon scholar-official who served a tragic monarch caught between two great powers and chose pragmatism; and a Joseon military officer who had to wield the sword he trained to avenge his enemy for that very foe.

Through their voices, we glimpse the true nature of forced sorrow, rightful anger, cunning diplomacy, and bitter victories. This is not a tale of heroic exploits but a requiem for the countless who perished under history’s great wheel, and a profound question posed to us living today. Before we begin the stories, let us first review an overview of the wars they endured.

Table 1: Summary of Major Overseas Military Dispatches in Goryeo and Joseon

Chapter 1: The Great Khan’s Ambition and Goryeo’s Tears – A Young Soldier’s Recollection (1274, 1281)

My name is… what use is a name now? I was just one of many young Goryeo men swept up and dragged away by the Great Khan’s ambitions. It was after decades of fighting the Mongols had left the land in ashes. We returned from Ganghwa Island to Gaegyeong, but the country was no longer ours. We were a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty, and Emperor Kublai Khan’s greed stretched across the sea to Japan.

The Shipyard of Despair

One day, a conscription order was issued. Men like me were taken to Happo on the southern coast, now Changwon. What I saw there was an endless lumberyard. Since Kublai planned to attack Japan, Goryeo was ordered to build 900 ships. 35,500 workers were mobilized nationwide. We cut wood and nailed planks amid starvation. As people collapsed one after another, the Yuan had to send 20,000 seok of grain to supply the workforce. It was not cooperation but exploitation. The work started in January 1274 and ended in four months. People said it was finished “like wind and lightning,” but those four months were hell for me. We were building with our own hands the ships that would lead us to tragedy.

The Wrath of the Divine Wind and Two Hells (1274, 1281)

We boarded the ships I helped build and set out to sea. There were 25,000 Mongol and Han troops, 8,000 Goryeo soldiers, and 6,700 sailors and workers—a total of 40,000 troops. What happened at Tsushima and Iki Islands was not a battle but a massacre.

Our Goryeo bows were small but powerful, and the poison on our arrowheads was deadly even with a graze. When we landed in Hakata Bay, victory was within reach.

But that evening, the Mongol command suddenly ordered a retreat. General Kim Bang-gyeong strongly opposed it, but to no avail. With uneasy hearts, we boarded the ships, and that night hell came. A storm tore through the sky, smashing ships into each other. Over 200 ships sank overnight, and more than 13,500 comrades disappeared beneath the waves. The Japanese called this the “kamikaze” and thanked the gods.

But Kublai’s ambition was unbroken. Seven years later, he launched an even larger expedition. A total of 140,000 troops. Goryeo again had to provide 900 warships and 110,000 seok of provisions. The second invasion faltered from the start. Japan built coastal defenses and resisted fiercely, and an epidemic broke out in our camp. We grew weary waiting for the promised southern troops, and just as they arrived, another typhoon struck. Nearly 4,000 ships were smashed, and the southern troops lost almost all of their 100,000 soldiers. In two invasions, we sacrificed tens of thousands of lives and national strength but gained nothing.

Chapter 2: Sweeping the Disaster from the Southern Sea – A Goryeo General’s Recollection (1389, 1419)

My name is Park Wi. Born a Goryeo warrior, I witnessed the founding of Joseon. In my youth, the country groaned under the shadow of Yuan, but even after they were driven north, the sea was not peaceful. Japanese pirates, the Wokou, became a new disaster ravaging our coasts. While soldiers in the Japanese invasions were dragged away against their will, we took up swords ourselves to protect our families and country.

Swift Retribution (1389)

At the end of Goryeo, Wokou raids peaked, and their stronghold was Tsushima. In 1389, the court made a decisive move, and I led a fleet of 100 ships on an expedition. Our morale soared. We struck Tsushima like lightning, burning over 300 enemy ships and crushing their stronghold. The greatest achievement was rescuing over 100 of our people captured by the pirates. This thrilling victory broke the pirates’ momentum and clearly showed who ruled our seas.

The Fallen King’s Fury and the New Dynasty’s Dignity (1419)

Years passed, Goryeo was gone, and Joseon rose. In 1419, the first year of King Sejong’s reign, starving Wokou invaded Bihyeon County, Chungcheong Province. Military power was in the hands of the retired King Taejong, whose anger was fierce. “Tsushima must be empty now. Immediately strike their empty homes and annihilate the main force at sea.”

Thus began the “Gihei Eastern Expedition.” General Yi Jongmu led 227 ships and over 17,000 soldiers. On June 20, we landed on Tsushima and burned about 1,940 enemy houses and 129 ships, rescuing 131 Chinese captives.

Harmony of Power and Diplomacy

At that time, dramatic news arrived that the main Wokou forces who had gone to Liaodong were destroyed by Ming troops. King Taejong immediately ordered a withdrawal and shifted to diplomatic pressure. “Tsushima has long been Joseon’s land. Choose whether to serve loyally or remain our enemy.” Eventually, the Tsushima lord knelt and pledged allegiance. The peaceful order was established through the “Gyehae Treaty.” This experience taught us that true victory lies not only in subduing enemies by force but in building peaceful order based on that power.

Chapter 3: Between Two Dragons – A Scholar-Official’s Anguish (1619)

I served closely under King Gwanghaegun. The Battle of Sarhū I experienced was not fought only with swords and spears. It was a painfully complex war where legitimacy, pragmatism, loyalty, and survival met on a narrow bridge.

A Kingdom on a Razor’s Edge

Joseon was walking on thin ice. In northern Manchuria, the Later Jin founded by Nurhaci was rising, and Ming, who helped us during the Imjin War, was like a setting sun. Yet Ming demanded troops to repay their “grace of restoration.” Officials cried out that we could not betray our parent country, but King Gwanghaegun thought differently. “The fate of the nation is at stake; how can we risk everything for loyalty alone?”

A Secret Order to the General

Ultimately, the king decided to dispatch troops, appointing General Kang Hong-rip as commander. On the night before departure, the king gave Kang a secret letter: “Observe the situation carefully, but if Ming’s defeat becomes clear, do not fight to the death; make peace with the Later Jin and preserve our troops.” This was a painful decision by a monarch to minimize the sacrifice of his people.

Calculated Surrender and Political Disaster

Thirteen thousand Joseon troops crossed the Yalu River. Seeing the Ming main force destroyed on the Sarhū plains, General Kang surrendered to the Later Jin, saving most of his troops. Militarily a defeat, diplomatically a success. But politically at home, it was a disaster. Opponents fiercely condemned it as “surrendering to barbarians and betraying the parent country,” and this justification became the pretext for the Injo Coup. The wise monarch who chose pragmatism was ousted, and a regime emphasizing legitimacy took power, leading Joseon to suffer two horrific Manchu invasions.

Chapter 4: The Strange Journey of the Northern Campaign – A Firearm Instructor’s Recollection (1654, 1658)

I was an instructor training elite firearm troops for King Hyojong’s Northern Campaign. The king’s dream to avenge the humiliation of the Byeongja Horan and conquer the Qing was our shared dream. We secretly expanded military strength, focusing on training arquebusiers.

An Ironic Summons

But in 1654, Qing made an absurd request. Russians, called “Nasan,” appeared causing trouble near the Heilongjiang River, and they wanted Joseon’s elite firearm troops sent. What a shock! The army we painstakingly trained to fight Qing was to fight for Qing. But as Qing’s vassal, we could not refuse the emperor’s order.

Clash at Heilongjiang

In 1654 and 1658, our firearm troops were dispatched twice. The battles at Heilongjiang were astonishing. The bulky Nasan soldiers were armed with modern firearms but could not match our arquebusiers. “Bang! Bang! Bang!” Under volleys of gunfire, the Nasan fell like leaves in the wind. The Russian forces were nearly annihilated in both battles, while our casualties were only 8 dead and 25 wounded. This battle proved the world-class capability of Joseon’s firearm troops. I was filled with mixed emotions welcoming the victorious soldiers. Their valor was proud, but the fact that their victory was for our adversary Qing was bitter.

What Made the Four Overseas Dispatches Different?

Each of the four overseas dispatches had a distinct character. Comparing their motives and outcomes clarifies the lessons of history.

• Mongol-Korean Allied Invasions of Japan:
  • Motive: Yuan imperialistic ambition
  • Agency: Forced mobilization regardless of Goryeo’s will
  • Outcome: Massive loss of lives and resources, intensified domestic interference
• Tsushima Campaigns:
  • Motive: Active defense against pirate raids
  • Agency: Autonomous decision to protect nation and people
  • Outcome: Weakening pirate forces and peace through diplomatic advantage
• Battle of Sarhū Dispatch:
  • Motive: Ming’s demand and rising Later Jin pressure, diplomatic coercion
  • Agency: Strategic choice for national interest (pragmatic diplomacy)
  • Outcome: Military defeat but preservation of lives, political disaster at home
• Nasan Campaigns:
  • Motive: Military mobilization order from suzerain Qing
  • Agency: Mandatory dispatch that could not be refused
  • Outcome: Demonstrated Joseon troops’ excellence, but Northern Campaign dream crushed—a historical irony

Conclusion: Lessons Echoing from History

Though the four stories differ in era and circumstance, they converge on one question: how should a nation wield its power? From their voices, we derive key lessons:

1. Misuse of power leads to tragedy: The young soldier’s tale swept by the Great Khan’s ambition shows how wielding power without wisdom causes great disaster.
2. Power and wisdom must harmonize: The Tsushima campaigns exemplify building peace through military strength combined with diplomatic prudence.
3. Capability shines even amid historical irony: Though forced to fight for an enemy, the Nasan campaigns demonstrated the importance of prepared strength.

What meaning do these historical lessons hold for us navigating today’s rapidly changing international landscape? Reflecting on past overseas dispatches offers a mirror to examine our current position.