The History of the Global Food Empire: Who Decides What We Eat and How?

Who Decides What We Eat and How?

The terms ‘Big Food’ or ‘Food Empire’ go beyond simply referring to large corporations. They represent a concept analyzing power, influence, and control over the global food system. This empire is built not on territory but on domination of supply chains, brands, and policies.

The core argument of this article is that the modern global food system is not a natural evolution of a free market but an ’empire’ constructed through deliberate corporate strategies based on technological and social changes—namely branding, globalization, and mergers & acquisitions (M&A). We will dissect the construction process of this empire, analyze its power structure, evaluate its profound consequences, and review current adaptations to 21st-century challenges.

The characteristics of this empire can be summarized as follows:

• Dominance by a few corporations: A handful of multinational companies like Nestlé, PepsiCo, and Coca-Cola dominate the industry. Just 10 companies control over 50% of the global food and beverage market.
• Vertical integration: Control over the entire process from agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilizers to processing and retail through vertical integration.
• Powerful lobbying: Strong lobbying influences food policies and safety regulations to prioritize corporate profits.
• Preference shaping through advertising: Billions of dollars invested in advertising to shape consumer preferences and promote a processed food-centered food culture.

Part 1: Origins of the Empire: From Agricultural Revolution to Industrial Food (Ancient Times–1900)

The birth of the food empire required a prerequisite: food itself had to transform from perishable regional specialties into industrial products that could be stored long-term and transported far.

Before the Industrial Revolution, humanity relied on basic preservation methods like drying, salting, and fermentation. Even during the Roman Empire, grain and wine trade existed, but large-scale distribution was impossible due to transportation limits and food spoilage risks.

A decisive change began in the late 18th century with the invention of ‘canning’ by Nicolas Appert in France. Developed to supply Napoleon’s army, this technology allowed humanity for the first time to store and transport food fresh for extended periods. Later, Louis Pasteur’s ‘pasteurization’ dramatically improved the safety of liquid foods like milk and wine, paving the way for mass consumption.

However, mass-produced packaged foods introduced a new problem: ‘distrust.’ Consumers doubted whether factory-made food was hygienic or free from contaminants. The pioneer who solved this was Henry J. Heinz. While competitors used colored bottles to hide contents, he boldly used transparent glass jars to showcase product purity. The slogan “57 Varieties” became a powerful brand symbolizing quality and variety. Thus, ‘branding’ was more than advertising; it was a key technology to break down consumer fears and build trust in industrial foods.

Key Innovations in Early Food Industry

Part 2: Formation of Modern Food Giants (1900–1970)

In the 20th century, food companies grew into massive multinational empires riding waves of war, consumerism, and globalization. Two world wars spiked demand for combat rations, driving innovations in processed foods like dried potatoes, powdered juices, and Spam. After the wars, the industry shifted focus from soldiers to the ‘American housewife,’ launching the era of ‘convenience cooking’ with marketing strategies selling modern lifestyles beyond mere convenience.

Coca-Cola set the blueprint for globalization. From the early 20th century, it rapidly expanded overseas by establishing bottling plants following U.S. military bases in a franchise model. During World War II, its promise to supply every U.S. soldier with cola for 5 cents engraved the brand worldwide. Campaigns like “I’d Like to Buy the World a Coke” sold not just a drink but the universal emotion of ‘happiness,’ forging emotional bonds with consumers.

Nestlé built its empire through M&A and innovation. Starting with infant formula and condensed milk, Nestlé became a global dairy powerhouse after a 1905 merger. It diversified its portfolio by acquiring numerous brands like Maggi (soups), Findus (frozen foods), and Libby (canned goods). The instant coffee ‘Nescafé,’ developed in the 1930s and supplied to U.S. troops during WWII, became a global hit.

McDonald’s revolutionized the foodservice industry with ’efficiency’ as its weapon. In 1948, the assembly-line ‘Speedee Service System’ enabled hamburgers to be sold for just 15 cents. Ray Kroc saw the system’s potential, designed a franchise model, and secured stable revenue by owning real estate for franchises, laying the foundation for aggressive expansion. The 1990 opening of its first Moscow store symbolized the Cold War thaw.

Part 3: The Invisible Hand: Rise of the Global Agribusiness Oligopoly

Behind the flashy brands we see in supermarkets are invisible giants controlling the raw materials of the food system. These are the four agribusiness companies known as ‘ABCD’: Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), Bunge, Cargill, and Louis Dreyfus. They control 70–90% of the global grain market, wielding unimaginable influence.

They are not mere intermediaries buying and selling grain. They produce agricultural inputs like seeds and fertilizers, finance farmers, operate massive storage facilities and transport networks, and own factories processing raw materials into oil, starch, and animal feed. They are ‘value chain managers’ controlling everything ‘from farm to fork.’

Their greatest power comes from ‘information’ and ‘logistics.’ Through global networks, they exclusively collect and analyze weather, crop, and market data to predict price fluctuations. Ultimately, consumer brand empires like Nestlé and PepsiCo are built on raw materials supplied cheaply and reliably by these ABCD firms. The visible brand empire and the invisible raw material empire support each other like two sides of the same coin, forming a colossal food empire.

The ‘ABCD’ Agribusiness Giants

Part 4: The Age of Consolidation: How M&A Built the Modern Food Empire (1970–Present)

From the late 20th century, food empires expanded and consolidated power through relentless mergers and acquisitions (M&A). M&A was not just for growth. Tobacco company Philip Morris diversified by acquiring food companies like Kraft to escape litigation risks in tobacco. PepsiCo acquired Quaker Oats, owner of Gatorade, to dominate the sports drink market.

The 2015 Kraft-Heinz merger symbolized the era of mega-mergers. It created the world’s 5th largest food company, but the main goal was aggressive cost-cutting rather than innovation. This shift shows the empire’s strategy moving from ’territory expansion’ to ’exploitation of existing territory,’ focusing on squeezing maximum profit from existing brands rather than growing new ones.

As a result, while consumers see many brands in supermarkets and believe in diversity, they are actually choosing products made by a few giant corporations. This is called the ‘illusion of diversity.’ Even organic brands chosen for health reasons are often owned by junk food giants lobbying against GMO labeling.

Major Food Industry M&A Cases

Part 5: Consequences of Domination: A Critical Assessment of the Food Empire’s Impact

What impact has the dominance of these giant food empires had on our lives? Unfortunately, the results are negative in many respects.

Public Health Crisis: ‘Big Food’ focuses on producing ultra-processed foods (UPFs) with cheap raw materials and high margins. These foods, loaded with added sugars, salt, and harmful fats, are designed to be addictive and have been linked in numerous studies to cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and even depression.

Environmental Destruction: Food production accounts for one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions. Industrial agriculture, characterized by monoculture and factory farming, is a major cause of deforestation, soil degradation, and water pollution. The UN warns that over one-third of the world’s soil is already degraded due to industrial farming.

Producer Hardship and Economic Inequality: Market monopolization by a few giants leaves powerless small farmers underpaid and struggling to survive. Consumers pay inflated prices due to corporate collusion under the ‘illusion of choice.’ These problems are not system errors but inevitable outcomes of a food empire designed solely for profit maximization.

Part 6: Empire’s Adaptation: Sustainability, Technology, and the Future of Food

Recently, food empires have faced fierce criticism and new market opportunities, prompting attempts at change through the keywords ‘sustainability’ and ‘food tech.’

Companies like Unilever and Nestlé have declared ‘net zero’ carbon neutrality goals by 2050 and are investing in ‘regenerative agriculture’ to restore soil health. However, critics argue these plans are slow to implement and fundamental conflicts between short-term profit and long-term sustainability remain unresolved.

More notable are moves in the food tech sector. With innovations like plant-based proteins and cultured meat emerging, food empires see these not as threats but as new investment opportunities. Tyson Foods, the largest U.S. meat processor, invested in plant-based company Beyond Meat; Danone acquired plant-based food company WhiteWave. Some have even established corporate venture capital (CVC) arms to acquire promising startups.

Ultimately, their strategy can be summarized as ‘buy the disruptor before being disrupted.’ By absorbing innovation externally, they control the pace of change and secure future dominant technologies and brands to maintain their rule. This is less a fundamental reform than a sophisticated survival strategy adapting to new environments.

Conclusion: The Future Trajectory of the Global Food Empire

We have traced the history of the global food empire, from technological innovations through branding, globalization, and M&A to its current form. We examined the dual structure of visible brand empires and invisible raw material empires and their massive impacts on health, environment, and economy.

The fundamental conflict in the food system lies between corporate goals of ‘short-term profit maximization’ and humanity’s need for a ‘healthy and sustainable future.’ Recent adaptations by the empire—sustainability initiatives and food tech investments—attempt to manage this tension, but the core profit motive remains unchanged.

The food empire stands at a crossroads. Its power remains immense, and it may maintain dominance by absorbing innovation. Yet, growing pressure from consumers demanding healthier, sustainable alternatives, regulators, and the physical reality of climate change is intensifying. The future struggle will determine whether external pressures can drive genuine change or if the empire will once again cleverly rebrand itself to profit amid crisis. Ultimately, the fight for the future of food is inseparable from the struggle over the future of this vast empire.